Chapter 1 of The Land of Seven Rivers by Sanjeev Sanyal
In this Newsletter, I summarise what we read in Chapter one in The Busy Booker. Sanyal traverses hotly debated topics such as the Aryan Invasion Theory, the ASI-ANI DNA and the formation of castes.
About the Land of Seven Rivers
The Land of Seven Rivers is the kind of book you wish you had been handed in school. It ties together India’s history and geography; past and present in a seamless read, making it easy for the common man to understand.
If you wish to know about India’s civilisational identity and procure answers to questions surrounding the Aryan Invasion Theory, establishment of the caste system, whether there was an idea of India before the British or the Mughals, then this is the book for you. It informs the reader, without her having to to go through verbose, albeit important, scholarly works. While it is ideal for people to access such works directly, one must deal with practical difficulties incurred while accessing and deciphering them. This is because most scholarly work around the aforementioned hotly debated aspects of India’s history is not written for the common man.
The book begins in modern day Gurgaon. Sanyal looks out his window and describes the concrete jungle before his eyes. He first evokes, in the reader, a sense of fear of the old ways disappearing with urbanisation and industrialisation and quickly pacifies the same by narrating the exciting epic, so to speak, of Bharat, which has been through much worse before.
He reminds us how we survived (and even thrived) greater calamities and invasions. In fact, our history has been one of conquest over our circumstances.
So, there is little reason to fear. As long as we continue to cling to dharma, we shall overcome.
Chapter 1
The World Was One Large Ball of Land
Unbelievable right?
It’s true though.
Till the early 20th Century the world always believed that all of the little bumps and cracks on the Earth were because its tectonic plates moved vertically. So, everyone presumed that the position of the continents was fixed because if tectonic plates were only moving up and down, they were, essentially, fixated in the same place.
Turns out they move horizontally.
Alfred Wegener in 1912 in his book “The Origin of Continents and Oceans” published the same in 1915. He suggested that a very long time ago, all the continents formed a single land mass that drifted apart like icebergs. His theory suggested an explanation to a problem which had perplexed map makers and scholars, who had noticed that all the land masses of the world seemed to fit together in a very neat jigsaw puzzle.
This led to the modern theory of plate tectonics.
It appears Wegener was right. All of the earth’s land was, in fact, one giant khichdi supercontinent called ‘Rodinia’, comprising of all the world’s continents.
Pangea then broke up into ‘Laurasia' and ‘Gondwana’, two smaller super continents.
India was part of Gondwana. In fact the name ‘Gondwana’ was itself derived from the ‘Gond’ tribe of central India.
But why is Sanyal talking about massive continents shifting positions since the beginning of time? This is because to understand the geographical significance of this great country we call home, we have to go back all the way to the beginning.
India’s geographical history begins with Rodinia breaking apart to give way to future super continents and eventually allowing India to crash into the Eurasian plate (which would then bring us to present day).
The Arvallis
You see, the Aravalli Range, running from Gujarat to Delhi, is estimated to be as old as Rodinia itself. Many sources suggest that these mountains were most likely formed over 3.2 to 1.2 billion years, by tectonic plates constantly shoving and pushing one another and magma outpourings.
This is significant because scientists do not know much about this period, which is also known as the ‘Pre Cambrian period’. Existing life forms during this time were no more than single celled organisms like bacteria.
So technically speaking, the Aravallis are as old as life itself!
You would think that a mountain range from a time period scientists know little to nothing about, would be treated as the treasure chest of all the earth’s wonderful secrets. Unfortunately, it is not. While Delhi University students use the northern most point of the Aravallis to French kiss in public, away from the scrutiny of their stern parents and prying eyes of their nosey landlords, in other parts of the country the Aravallis are mined and torn down.
However, parts of the mountain range survive near the Rajasthan-Gujarat border, namely, the Guru Shikhar peak, which is a sacred place of temples and legends. Interestingly, this peak was also the capital of Mewar where Rana Pratap and his army of Bhil tribesmen refused to surrender to the Mughals. However, for the most part, the Aravallis are, unfortunately, a dying mountain range.
(Guru Shikar Peak, Mount Abu)
The Eurasian Collision and the Himalayas
As India continued to move northwards, it collided with Eurasia, giving us our present day geography. As the Indian subcontinent crashed with the Eurasian plate, the collision pushed the Himalayas and Tibetan plateau up, which were both previously underwater. Thus, what are now tall mountains were previously under the sea.
This is also why many marine fossils are commonly found high up in the mountains.
In fact, experts suggest that the process is not over and that the Indian plate is still pushing into Asia. As a result, the Himalayas are still rising by around 5 mm every year1. India’s relentless push into Asia also makes the subcontinent tectonically active, making it prone to various earthquakes. The 2005 earthquake in North Pakistan and Pakistan occupied Kashmir registered a magnitude of 7.6 on the Richter scale and claimed thousands of lives!
Formation of the Himalayas, also set the stage for formation of India’s youngest geological feature- the Gangetic plains. The Gangetic plains started out as a marshy depression running between the Himalayas and an older mountain range called the “Vindhyas”. Silt brought down by the Ganga and its tributaries slowly began to fill up this hollow to create a fertile plain.
Who are the Indians?
When India collided with Asia, it rejoined the broader ecological milieu of the rest of the world. The entry of large mammals into India, such as the Siberian mammoth and the tiger, was due to its geographical attachment to Eurasia.
Not only was India a hospitable home to large mammals, it also provided refuge to early humans, who wandered into the subcontinent from Africa.
But how did the Africans make it to the Indian subcontinent?
There is general consensus that the modern human developed around 2,00,000 years ago. Genetic studies show that the San tribe of the Kalahari (also called the ‘Bushmen’) are probably the oldest surviving population of humans. Members of this tribe show the largest amount of genetic variation of any racial group. So, it is likely that all early humans are direct descendants of this ancient tribe.
While a large majority of the early humans remained in Africa, a small band dared to venture out of the continent into the great unknown. It is amazing that despite all their superficial differences, all non Africans are descendants of this tiny group of wanderers.
However, in the early stages it would not have been obvious that this small band of curious wanderers would have been successful at all.
This is because there is evidence to show that the first band of early humans who tried to leave Africa failed. They only got as far as Israel. Archaeological remains in the Skul and Qafzeh caves in Israel show that modern humans may have made their way to the Levant about 1,20,000 years ago.
While it is entirely possible that their passage may have been helped by the fact that the planet was enjoying a relatively wet and warm inter-glacial period that allowed them to wander up north, this climatic period did not last too long.
A new ice-age started and the small group either died out or was forced to retreat.
For the next 50,000 years our ancestors remained in Africa. However, around 65,000 -70,000 years ago, a small band, once again, decided to venture out of the continent.
This small group of people crossed over from Africa into the southern Arabian peninsula. Climatic and environmental conditions had a very significant role to play in their journey. When these early humans made their way out of Africa, the earth was much cooler and much of the world’s water was locked in giant ice sheets.
As a result, sea levels were as much as 100 meters lower than present day and coastlines and climate zones would have been very different than they are today. This small band of early humans would have found an Arabian coastline that was much wetter and more hospitable. They would also have had to make a relatively shorter crossing across the Red Sea.
Modern humans then made their way along the coast to what is now known as the ‘Persian Gulf’. The average depth of the Persian Gulf today is only 36 meters. If sea levels were atleast a 100 meters below current levels, this area would have been a well watered Garden of Eden for our weary travellers, who probably enjoyed a significant population increase in this area.
At some stage, while a sizeable population of the wanderers remained in the Persian Gulf, much like their ancestors, small groups of wanderers branched out from the Persian Gulf and headed in different directions. Scientists believe that all important genetic lineages today can be traced to the Persian Gulf. However, research into the gulf is relatively new and hindered by the fact that the area is now mostly underwater.
In any case, one branch of the wanderers from the Persian Gulf eventually reached Australia, around 40,000 years ago and became the ancestors of the aboriginals.
The other branch headed towards the Makran coast and into the Indian subcontinent. Again, the Indian coastline would have been very different from what we see today, with the shore being 25-100 km out from current contours.
Some scholars have argued that there is a genetic link between Australian aboriginals and the aboriginal tribes in South East Asia. However, for a long time researches could find no direct genetic link between present day Indians and native Australians.
A study published in 20092 by the Anthropological Survey of India finally founds genetic traces, albeit small, to link some Indian tribes with native Australian tribes. The study suggested that the Indian and Australian groups had separated some 50,000 - 60,000 years ago.
It must be noted that the above account of travels is a simplified version of what happened over tens of thousands of years. Sanyal is quick to point out that one is dealing with very tiny Stone Age bands of 50 - 100 individuals over vast expanses of time and space. Their movements would not have been linear or systematic. There would have been random wanderings, retracements and dead ends. Factors such as natural calamities, hunger, tribal war fares and disease would have decided who survived and who did not.
Early Humans In India
There are plenty of remains of these early humans in Stone Age sites scattered across India. Bhimbetka in Central India is one of the most extensive sites in the world and was discovered only in the 1950s. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The hilly terrain is littered with hundreds of caves and rock shelters that appear to have been inhabited almost continuously for over 30,000 years.
Archaeologists have also discovered beads and ornaments made of ostrich egg shells, which show that the bird might have once been common in the region and was possibly pushed to extinction in India by the Stone Age fashion industry.
Bhimbetka also has rock paintings of animals and hunter gatherers from the Stone Age as well as of warriors on horseback from a later time (perhaps the Bronze Age). The paintings provide intriguing glimpses of the ancient origins of the Indian Civilisation.
While referring to a painting of a dancing deity, at the Bhimbetka caves, with a trident and bangles in his hand, BBC’s Michael Woods remarked how the painting had a striking resemblance with Shiva3
Changing Indian Coastlines and the Great Flood
The last full blown Ice Age started around 24,000 years ago and reached its peak around 18,000 to 20,000 years ago and then warmed up. Around 14,000 years ago the ice sheets began to melt rapidly and the sea levels rose dramatically. Weather patterns around the world began changing and the Persian Gulf filled up.
Around 7500-8000 years ago, the Gulf was completely flooded. Naturally, a rise in sea levels also affected Indian coastlines, which also moved several kilometres inland to roughly approximate what we would recognise today.
Sanyal wonders whether this accounts for the great flood, which seems to be a common theme across Indian and Western legends?
According to the Indian legend, Manu, the king of the Dravidians, was warned by the god Vishnu about the flood. So he built a large ship and filled it with seeds and animals. Vishnu, in the form of a fish, then towed the boat back to safety. Manu and the survivors are then said to have rebuilt civilisations.
Sanyal compares this story with the story of Noah. The similarities are uncanny.
The Aryan Invasion Theory
Till the early 20th century, it was believed that India was inhabited by aboriginal stone age tribes till around 1500 BC when Indo Europeans called “Aryans” invaded the subcontinent from Central Asia with horses and iron weapons. It was argued that Indian civilisation was the direct result of this invasion.
Although the date of 1500 BC was completely arbitrary and not backed by any textual or archaeological evidence, this theory appeared to fit the pattern of later Central Asian invasions as well as explain certain linguistic similarities between Indian and European languages. Most importantly it was politically convenient at the time, as it painted the British as merely later day Aryans with a mission to civilise the natives.
However, upon the discovery of the Harappan civilisation which predated 1500 BC, the theory had to be drastically revised.
The Aryan Dravidian Theory
It was now argued that the Dravidians built the Indus cities and that these cities were destroyed by the Aryans. Aryans were associated with the Vedic culture and the Dravidians were associated with Sangam culture. The Aryans were associated with Northern India and the Dravidians were associated with Southern India.
It is obvious to see why such a theory would drive a wedge between North Indians and South Indians.
Luckily for us, we are in the 21st century, the technology whereof provides some clues as to the genetic composition of the Indian population.
The first thing that Sanyal clarifies is that there are no pure races in India and that a vast majority of Indian tribes, castes and communities are mixture of many genetic communities. Basically, Indians come in all shapes, colours and sizes.
The first clue came from a 2006 study which said that India’s population mix has been broadly stable for a very long time and that there has been no major injection of of Central Asian genes for over 10,000 years4. This means that even if there had been a large scale influx of Indo Europeans, it would have taken place more than 10,000 years ago, long before iron weapons and domestication of the horse. The study also suggested that Dravidian speakers have lived in Southern India for a very long time and that the so called Dravidian genetic pool may even have originated there.
This had two implications. Firstly, the Harappan cities were found up north. If the Dravidian population had remained in Southern India since time immemorial, how could they have constructed such cities in North India? Secondly, if the cities were built more than 10,000 years ago, long before iron weapons and domestication of the horse, how could the Aryans have domesticated the horse or wielded iron weapons?
The ANI - ASI theory
A more recent study by David Reich of Harvard Medical School, published in Nature in 20095 suggests that the bulk of the Indian population can be explained by a mixture of two ancestral groups - the Ancestral South Indian (ASI) and the Ancestral North Indian (ANI).
The ASIs are the older group and are not related to the Europeans, East Asians or any group outside the subcontinent. The ANIs are a recent group and are related to the Europeans The ANIs have a larger share in North India and account for over 70% of the genes in Kashmiri Pandits and Sindhis.
Now the temptation to use such a study as a catapult to launch the Aryan-Dravidian divide is clear. However, it is not as simple as that.
You see, even though the ANI gene has a larger share in Northern Indians (upto 70%), it isnt entirely absent from Southern Indians. Infact, the ANI gene accounts for 40-50% of the genes of Southern Indians and of tribal groups of Central India. Thus, there is no pure population of Ancestral South Indians or Ancestral North Indians. The only population without a large ANI input live in remote places like the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Another reason the ANI-ASI theory is not supported is because we are dealing with genetic mingling over 10,000 years ago, a lot earlier than the Vedic tradition, Sangam literature or even the Harappan Civilisation. We are splitting genetic hairs over genetic mingling of a small band of hunter gatherers and early farming communities rather than thundering war chariots, iron weapons and fortified cities that are said to have been part of the Aryan Dravidian theory.
In other words, after thousands of years of mixing, Indians are most closely related to each other and it is pointless splitting hairs over who is more Aryan and who is more Dravidian.
Infact, Sanyal points out how the story of Manu, the Indian Noah, sums up the genetic findings surprisingly well. This is because Manu, who was the king of the Dravidians prior to the flood, is repeatedly mentioned in Vedic tradition as an ancestor!
So Aryans too trace parts of their ancestry to the Dravidians.
Does this sound like something a war mongering tribe with iron weapons and horses would do? Or does this sound like a community that has lived together for generations with a common ancestor?
I leave it to the reader to decide.
Sanyal also points out how the ANI-ASI framework does not explain all genetic variations across the country. It is merely a starting point of a very interesting line of study that could provide key tools for next generation medicine.
Genetic Linkages With Europeans and Iranians
Of course, the genetic links of North Indians to some Europeans and Iranians corroborates linguistic linkages that were discerned in the 19th century.
Most of this evidence is centred around gene mutation called ‘R1a1’ and more importantly a sub group called ‘R1a1a’. This gene is common in North India and among East Europeans such as Czechs, Poles and Lithuanians.
A study published by Peter Underhill et al published in 2010 in the European Journal of Human Genetics found that the oldest strain of the R1a1a branch was concentrated in the Gujarat-Sindh-Western Rajasthan area, suggesting that this was close to the origin of this genetic group.
On the other hand the most common lineage in Western Europe is ‘R1b’. While the R1b is related to the R1a1, the two lineages separated a very long time ago, probably during or before the Ice Age. Moreover, those who do carry the R1a1a gene in Europe also carry a further mutation of the gene, i.e., ‘M458’. Since the M458 population is estimated to be atleast 8,000 years old, the two populations appear to be separated during or before the Great Flood.
We do not really know why the Asian and European branches separated but Sanyal poses the possibility that we are dealing with two major genetic dispersals occurring from the Persian Gulf Makran-Gujarat Region at different points in the climatic cycle - one occurred at the onset or during the last Ice Age with R1b carriers heading mostly west and the other occurred around the time of the Flood involving R1a1 carriers.
Sanyal attributes to the genetic and cultural linkages between North Indians and eastern Iranians to the second dispersal, i.e., one involving the R1a1 carriers during the Great Flood.
It must also be remembered that there is reason to believe that some Indian tribes moved westward to Iran and beyond during the Bronze Age. Moreover, the spread of Indian culture to South East Asia in ancient times and more recently, the accelerated popularity of the English language shows that one does not need either conquest or large scale migration to drive linguistic and cultural exchange.
Did the Aryans Create the Caste System?
India is not unique in having a caste system. Throughout history, we have seen different versions of the caste system in Japan, Iran and even in Europe.
However, the Indian caste system distinguishes itself, out of its refusal to die, despite changes in technology, political conditions and even religion. The system has even survived centuries of strong criticism and opposition both from within and outside the Hindu community.
It was once believed that the Aryan Invasion had something to do with the rigid imposition of the caste system and establishment of the racial hierarchy.
However, as geneticists have found that the ‘Y chromosomal data consistently suggests a largely South Asian origin for Indian caste communities’. This implies that caste was not a foreign superimposition but developed within the Indian subcontinent.
Moreover, geneticists also suggest that Indian castes are profoundly influenced by ‘founder events’. This means that castes were created by an ‘event’ when a group separates out and turns itself into endogamous tribe. Over time this process leads to a heterogenous milieu of groups and sub groups, sometimes combining and sometimes splitting off.
The result is that after centuries of mixing we do not have a unified population but a complex network of clans. This is a good description of the messy ‘Jati’ based social system that exists to this day.
India’s leading geneticist, Dr. Lalji Singh, also suggests that it is impossible to distinguish between castes and tribes. This supports the larger view that castes grew out of tribe like organisations during the formation of Indian society.
Sanyal points the reader to the distribution of the R1a1 genetic haplogroup distribution amongst the various castes and tribes of the country. Not only is it present in high concentration amount high caste Brahmins of Bengal and Konkan as well as Punjabi Khatris but also in tribes such as the Chinchus of Andhra Pradesh.
A paper published in Journal of Human Genetics in January 2009, argued that the R1a1 lineage probably originated in India and argued for a tribal link to Indian Brahmins. Thus, we may well be dealing with a particularly successful Neolithic clan that branched out in different directions and who descendants experienced very different fates.
There is also research to suggest that the genetic reality and the rigid and strictly hierarchal varna system of castes described in the Manusmriti may never have existed in reality. It may only have been a scholarly abstraction6.
For instance, the system can spontaneously create new castes whenever new groups need to be accommodated. Groups can also be promoted or demoted in social status according to the prevailing social conditions.
This explanation fits what we know from historical experience - including the formation of the Rajput warrior caste in the medieval period.
It is ironic to note how in the past these groups fought one another to move up the pecking order but today, we have the opposite situation where more and more groups wish to benefit from affirmative action and thus want to be classified as ‘backward’. This may very well be a ‘founding event’.
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The actual line of collision between the Indian and Eurasian plate is called the Indus-yarlung Tsangpo Suture Zone. The holy Mansarovar lake sits in a trough along this zone.
‘Reconstructing Indian Australian Phylogenetic Link’, Satish Kumar et al. B<C Evolutionary Biology, July 2009
‘The Story of India’, Michael Wood, BBC Worldwide 2008
‘Polarity and Temporality of High Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists’, Sengupta et al, The American Journal of Human Genetics, February 2006
‘Reconstructing Indian Population History’, David Reich et al., Nature, September 2009
Sanyal says that it is possible that the ‘varna’ framework was no more than an intellectual effort to understand and rationalise the bubbling milieu of Jatis. Scholarship based purely on texts has allowed this intellectual effort to define the actual texts.